Pollution of the planet, practically speaking, begins and ends with people. Pollution is produced not only by the industrialized nations, but also by developing countries rushing toward progress and its rewards. In fact, some of the worst environmental problems begin in developing countries and then may affect their neighbors and even distant nations. Regardless of how well one country may deal with its own sources of pollution, environmental problems may remain until a neighbor institutes effective cleanup procedures as well. Professional diplomats, as well as others, often must deal with the question, How do I get my neighbor to do unto me as I have done for myself?
Toxic chemicals used for agricultural purposes wash into rivers that may cross national boundaries. The poisoning of aquifers may affect more than one nation. Atmospheric pollutants such as sulfur dioxide may be carried halfway around the world before descending in rain water to pollute lakes and kill trees. Depletion of the ozone layer by hydrofluorocarbons is an international problem of immediate concern. Volatile chemicals such as benzene hexachloride may be carried from warmer to colder regions of the world through a process called global distillation (1). Clearly, pollution is an international problem and needs to be addressed from an international perspective.
The earth can absorb the environmental impact of humans to a degree, but not indefinitely. We may have reached a limit where changes begin to influence climate and destruction of the environment could become permanent. With the lifting of the Iron Curtain, enormous degradation has been revealed in Russia and other former Soviet bloc countries. Exploitation of natural resources has occurred without regard for the environment or for the people whose lives were affected by the development of those resources. Slovakia, Poland, the Czech Republic, and Russia will take many years to recover from the pollution of rivers and lakes. In Poland, poor air quality, contaminated drinking water, and absence of treatment of industrial and municipal wastes are of major concern. As much as 30% of the effluent is discharged directly into the rivers and eventually into the sea.
In Brazil, gold mining has resulted in massive contamination of the environment with mercury, which is used in extraction of gold, especially around the Serra Pelada mine in the state of Pará. The burning of mercury-gold amalgam to release the bound gold releases mercury fumes, which then injure workers and settle on vegetation, where it is eventually washed by rain into the soil and into rivers. Studies of reservoirs downstream of gold mining demonstrate mercury contamination of soil, water, and fish.
China is a rapidly developing country with over 1.2 billion people. Environmental problems have arisen from overpopulation and rapid industrialization and overuse of natural resources. Air pollution is a major problem. Much of China's surface water is contaminated with heavy metals including lead, cadmium, and arsenic from industrial pollution.
The cover of this month's EHP and the first Focus article focus on the people of the world and their role in both degrading and protecting the environment. The world's population in the next 50 years may exceed 9 billion, while the global economic output is estimated to increase possibly by about 5-fold (2). Clearly, renewable resources in the future may become severely strained or depleted. Destruction of the environment leads to cultural and economic impoverishment (2) and as environmental problems become more severe, they may trigger civil and international strife (3). It is extremely important that we begin to address the issues. Somehow we have to build a future that is sustainable, that does not destroy the environment.
A hope for the permanent resolution of pollution problems around the world lies in the education of its people. Pollution occurs because of the activities of people, and those activities may continue until those who engage in polluting the environment fully understand the consequences of their actions. Government legislation and policing is necessary, but information and education can influence the choices that people make.
Quite often those who are in greatest need of education are those that can least afford to invest. Because of this lack of discretionary funds, especially U.S. currency, NIEHS offers subscriptions to EHP, free of charge, to any educational or research institution in any developing nation. Our only condition is that the journal reside in a library and be freely available to all who have need of its information. In this way, we at NIEHS try to contribute to and influence environmental health programs around the world. At the present time we provide over 2,000 subscriptions to developing nations. Of these, 249 subscriptions are sent to Russia, 102 to Poland, 9 to Slovakia, 65 to the Czech Republic, 174 to China, and 73 to Brazil. I consider this program an investment in the future of humanity.
Kenneth Olden, PhD
Director, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
References
1. Simonich SL, Hites RA. Global distribution of peristent organochlorine compounds. Science 269:1851-1854 (1995).
2. World Wildlife Fund. Choosing a sustainable future. Report of the National Commission on the Environment World Wildlife Fund. Covelo, CA:Island Press, 1993
3. Homer-Dixon TF, Boutwell JH, Rathgens GW. Environmental change and violent conflict. Sci Am February:38-45 (1993).
Nobody Said It Would Be Easy
Cooperation at the international level is one of the most important ingredients for making progress toward improving the global environment. During the last 20 years environmental treaties have proliferated, with nearly 200 being drafted and placed into law (1). One example is the International Climate Change Treaty, which became legally binding in 1994 and requires that countries submit detailed lists of their greenhouse gas emissions and implement programs to curb such emissions. A second example is the Montreal Protocol, which was drafted in 1987 and established a time table for the prohibition of production of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to halt the destruction of the ozone layer.
In 1909, Canada and the United States signed the Boundary Waters Treaty and established the International Joint Commission (IJC). The main premise of the treaty was that neither party may use the water on its side of the lakes to the detriment of the water, health, and property of the other side. The role of the IJC was to investigate and recommend remedial actions for problems identified under the Boundary Waters Treaty. The first referral to the IJC dealing with the Great Lakes occurred in 1912 and involved binational concern about waterborne diseases. Actions emanating from that referral included the building of water and sewage treatment plants in urban areas. Over the intervening years many Great Lakes environmental problems have been addressed by the IJC. In 1972, the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (GLWQA) was signed to address the issue of eutrophication of the Great Lakes by reducing the phosphorus loading of the lakes. The agreement was subsequently renegotiated in 1978 and its scope broadened to include control of persistent, toxic substances. Further expansions of the agreement were made in 1987, including management plans and ecosystem indicators.
How important is the Great Lakes basin to Canada and the United States? One-fifth of all the fresh surface water of the earth is contained in the Great Lakes. The basin is rich in agricultural land, mineral deposits, extensive forests, and diverse wildlife. Because of these attributes, many people have been attracted to the basin, so that today there are over 32 million people living there. Employment in the basin represents nearly 11% of the total binational workforce and 15% of all manufacturing jobs (2). Considering these figures, it is not hard to understand why there is severe environmental stress on this ecosystem and why the protection of this ecosystem is important to these neighboring nations.
Effectiveness of the GLWQA can be judged in many ways. Significant reductions of the phosphorus loading have been achieved. Ambient concentrations of most toxic inorganic and organic chemicals contaminants have declined to below the goals set by the agreement (4). Concentrations of toxicants in fish and bird species have also declined on a lakewide basis, and increases in the reproductive success and in the populations of bald eagles, double-breasted cormorants, herring gulls, and other predatory birds in the Great Lakes basin have been observed (5). In addition, the concentrations of PCB and organochlorine pesticide residues in breast milk have declined and are lower than those reported in European countries (6). Although much needs to be done, it is doubtful that this degree of success would have been possible without the cooperation of both the United States and Canada (7).
One of the programs that Canada has established under the GLWQA is the Great Lakes Action Plan (GLAP), which focuses on accelerated cleanup of the contaminated areas as well as prevention of future pollution. The most recent United States' initiative is the issuance of the final Great Lakes Water Quality Guidance by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The ecosystem-wide guidance is intended to provide a framework and consistent policy for the eight states surrounding the lakes for further reduction of the toxic chemicals that have contaminated the Great Lakes basin.
In this month's issue of Environmental Health Perspective Supplements, 11 articles focus on the health effects of pollutants in the Great Lakes. The articles grew out of the Canadian Great Lakes Health Effects Program (GLHEP), which is one of the major initiatives of the GLAP. The GLHEP looks at the human health effects from Great Lakes pollutants and supports research and dissemination of health information. The articles contain both original research and reviews that reflect some of the accomplishments of the first five years of the GLHEP. The areas covered include immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and reproductive toxicity. Readers will find these papers to be a valuable resource on the human health impact of environmental contaminants in the Great Lakes basin.
Although international cooperation to address environmental issues is complicated by limited funding, trading concerns, financial limitations, international sovereignty, etc., innovative approaches must be developed. Changing in voting mechanisms have been used successfully to allow for amendments to strengthen existing treaties, as has the use of "soft laws"; i.e., nonbinding agreements that depend on moral persuasion and public embarrassment (8). Although the negotiations for such treaties are extremely difficult and their success is not assured, there are no other alternatives. As the great baseball player and tongue-in-cheek philosopher, Yogi Berra, said: "When you get to a fork in the road, take it!"
Thomas J. Goehl
Science Editor
References
1. Sand PH. The effectiveness of international environmental agreements: a survey of existing international instruments. Cambridge, MA:Cambridge University Press, 1992.
2. U.S. EPA, Environment Canada. The Great Lakes: an environmental atlas and resource book. Washington, DC:Environmental Protection Agency, 1988.
3. Kirschner, E. EPA finalizes plan for Great Lake cleanup. Chem Eng News 73(12):7 (1995).
4. Health and Welfare Canada. A vital link: health and the environment in Canada. Cat. no. H21-112/1992E. Ottawa, Ontario: Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1992.
5. Environment Canada. Toxic chemicals in the Great Lakes and associated effects, vol II: Effects. Cat. no. EN 37-95/1990-1E. Ottawa, Ontario: Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1991.
6. Newsome WH, Davies D, Doucet J. PCB and organochlorine pesticides in Canadian human milk--1992. Chemosphere (in press).
7. Thomas RL, Hartig, JH. The Great Lakes: a case study of the sequential problems facing water quality management as a consequence of accelerated industrial development. J Can-Pakis Coop 2:19-27(1988).
8. French HF. Making environmental treaties work. Sci Am 271:94-97 (1994).
Last Update: November 27, 1995
