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I-Jen Pan,¹ Julie L. Daniels,^1,2 Barbara D. Goldman,³ Amy H. Herring,^4,5 Anna Maria Siega-Riz,^1,5,6 and Walter J. Rogan⁷

¹Department of Epidemiology, ²Department of Maternal and Child Health, ³Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, ⁴Department of Biostatistics, ⁵Carolina Population Center, and ⁶Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA; ⁷Epidemiology Branch, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA

Abstract
Background: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) are persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic pollutants that were broadly used in the United States until the 1970s. Common exposure to PCBs, DDT, and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) , the most stable metabolite of DDT, may influence children's neurodevelopment, but study results are not consistent.

Objectives: We examined the associations between lactational exposure to PCBs, DDT, and DDE and infant development at 12 months, using data from the Pregnancy, Infection, and Nutrition Babies Study, 2004–2006.

Methods: We measured PCBs, DDT, and DDE in breast milk at the third month postpartum. Lactational exposure of these chemicals was estimated by the product of chemical concentrations and the duration of breast-feeding. Infant development at 12 months of age was measured by the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (n = 231) and the Short Form: Level I (infant) of the MacArthur–Bates Communicative Development Indices (n = 218) .

Results: No consistent associations were observed between lactational exposure to PCBs, DDT, and DDE through the first 12 months and the measures of infant development. However, DDE was associated with scoring below average on the gross motor scale of the Mullen among males only (adjusted odds ratio = 1.9 ; 95% confidence interval, 1.1–3.3) .

Conclusion: Infant neurodevelopment at 12 months of age was not impaired by PCBs, DDT, and DDE at the concentrations measured here, in combination with benefits from long duration of breast-feeding in this population.

Key words: breast milk, DDE, DDT, lactation, MacArthur–Bates Communicative Development Indices, Mullen Scales of Early Learning, PCBs. Environ Health Perspect 117:488–494 (2009) . doi:10.1289/ehp.0800063 available via http://dx.doi.org/ [Online 10 November 2008]

Address correspondence to J.L. Daniels, Department of Epidemiology, CB #7435, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA. Telephone: (919) 966-7096. Fax: (919) 966-2089. E-mail: julie_daniels@unc.edu

We acknowledge A. Sjödin and the Organic Analytic Toxicology Branch of the National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, for PCBs, DDT, and DDE assays.

This research was supported by grants from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (RD832736) and the NIEHS (P30ES10126) . The work of W.J.R. on this project was supported by the Intramural Research Program, NIEHS, NIH.

The authors declare they have no competing financial interests.

Received 2 August 2008 ; accepted 10 November 2008.